Historia del Pensamiento y del Análisis Económico
Fue uno de los siglos claves y mas trascendentales en la historia de la humanidad. La terrible brutalidad de la Guerra de los 30 Años (población en muchos países cayó en 50% o más) contrastó con los increíbles avances en las ciencias naturales. Se formaron las primeras sociedad científicas (Royal Society en UK). Esto marca también un quiebre esencial en relación a El Filósofo –tanto en Francia (Descartes) como en UK (Hobbes, Locke) lideraron un movimiento de revulsión respecto de la dominancia de Aristóteles. El cambio es significativo en muchos aspectos pero uno, que nos concierne, es relevante: el cambio en el estilo de la escritura
El trabajo por tanto, no es la fuente única de los valores de uso que produce, de la riqueza material. El trabajo es el padre de ésta, como dice William Petty, y la tierra, su madre [Karl Marx El Capital, Libro I(1867)]
The method I take to do this is not yet very usual; for instead of using only comparative and superlative Words, and intellectual Arguments, I have taken the course (as a Specimen of the Political Arithmetic I have long aimed at) to express myself in Terms of Number, Weight, or Measure; to use only Arguments of Sense, and to consider only such Causes, as have visible Foundations in Nature. [Hull The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty (1899)]
Desarrolló el concepto de velocidad de circulación del dinero.
Concepto de Ingreso Nacional. No se preocupó por la definición pero reconoció su importancia analítica y sus efectos. Entre él y Quesnay están los inicios del análisis moderno del ingreso y cuentas nacionales
‘Father and mother’. Destacó (¿descubrió?) los dos factores originales de la producción
“By Political Arithmetick we mean the art of reasoning by figures upon things relating to government…The art itself is undoubtedly very ancient…[But Petty] first gave it that name and brought into rules and methods” [Davenant (1698), I, p. 128]
…if it be employed to build a useless Pyramid upon Salisbury Plain, bring the Stones at Stonehenge to Tower Hill, or the like; for at worst this would keep their mindes to discipline and obedience, and their bodies to a patience of more profitable labours when need shall require it [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
before we talk too much of Rents, we should endeavour to explain the mysterious nature of them, with reference as well to Money, the rent of which we call usury; as to that of Lands and Houses afore-mentioned [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
I shall speak of Poll-money more distinctly, and first of the simple Poll-money upon every head of all mankinde alike; the Parish paying for those that receive alms, Parents for their children under age, and Masters for their Apprentices, and others who receive no wages [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
The evil of this way is, that it is very unequal; men of unequal abilities, all paying alike, and those who whave greatest charges of Children paying most; that is, that by how much the poorer they are, by so much the harder they are taxed [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
Suppose a man could with his own hands plant a certain scope of Land with Corn, that is could Digg, or Plough, Harrow, Weed, Reap, Carry home, Thresh, and Winnow so much as the Husbandry of this Landr requires; and had withal Seed wherewith to sowe the same. I say, that when this man hath subducted his seed out of the proceed of his Harvest, and also, what himself hath both eaten and given to others in exchange for Clothes, and other natural necessaries; that the remainder of Corn is the natural and true Rent of the Land for that year; and the medium of seven years, or rather of so many years as makes up the Cycle, within which Dearths and Plenties make their revolution, doth give the ordinary Rent of the Land in Corn [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
a …collaterall question may be, how much English money this Corn or Rent is worth? I answer, … so much as the money, which another single man can save, whithin the same time, over and above his expence, if he employed himself wholly to produce and make it; viz. Let another man go travel intro a Countrey where is Silver, there Dig it, Refine it, bring it to the same place where the other man planted his Corn; Coyne it, &c. the same person, all the while of his working for Silver, gathering also food for his necessary livelihood, and procuring himself covering, &c. I say, the Silver of the one, must be esteemed of equal value with the Corn of the other: the one being perhaps twenty Ounces and the other twenty Bushels. From whence it follows, that the price of a Bushel of this Corn to be an ounce of Silver [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
The world measures things by gold and silver, but principally the latter [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
…is, that all things ought to be valued by two natural Denominations, which is Land and Labour [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
[W]e ought to say, a Ship or garment is worth such a measure of Land, with such another measure of Labour; forasmuch as both Ships and Garments were the creatures of Lands and Labours thereupon: This being true, we should be glad to finde out a natural Par between Land and Labour, so as we might express the value by either of them alone [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
Having found the Rent or value of the usus fructus per annum [of land], the question is, how many years purchase (as we usually say) is the Fee simple naturally worth? [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
then an Acre of Land would be equal in value to a thousand Acres of the same Land; which is absurd, an infinity of unites being equal to an infinity of thousands. Wherefore, we must pitch upon some limited number, and that I apprehend to be the number of years, which I conceive one man of fifty years old, another of twenty eight, and another of seven years old, all being alive together may be thought to live; that is to say, of a Grandfather, Father and Childe; …for if a man be a great Grandfather, he himself is so much the nearer his end, so as there are but three in a continual line of descent usually co-existing together; and as some are Grandfathers at forty years, yet as many are not till above sixty. Wherefore I pitch the number of years purchase, that any Land is naturally worth, to be the ordinary extent of three such persons their lives [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
As for Usury, the least that can be, is the Rent of so much Land as the money lent will buy, where the security is undoubted; but where the security is causal, then a kinde of ensurance must be enterwoven with the simple natural Interest, which may advance the Usury very conscionably unto any height below the Principal itself [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
Parallel unto this, is something which we omit concerning the price of Land; for as great need of money heightens Exchange so doth great need of Corn raise the price of that likewise, and consequently of the Rent of the Land that bears Corn, and lastly of the Land it self; as for example, if the Corn which feedeth London, or an Army, be brought forty miles thither, then the Corn growing within a mile of London, or the quarters of such Army, shall have added unto its natural price, so much as the charge of bringing it thirty nine miles doth amount unto [Sir William Petty, A Treatise on Taxes and Contributions (1662)]
El dinero es como la grasa del cuerpo político, que si abunda en demasía a menudo impide su agilidad y si es poca significa que está enfermo. Ciertamente, así como la grasa lubrica el movimiento de los músculos, satisface la necesidad de víveres, llena las cavidades desiguales y embellece el cuerpo, así hace el dinero en el Estado, acelerando su acción, suministrandose en el extranjero en época de escasez en el interior, facilita las cuentas en razón de su divisibilidad y embellece al conjunto, aunque especialmente más a las personas que lo poseen en abundancia [Hull The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty (1899)]
La Burbuja de Mississippi. La Compañía de Mississippi a cargo de John Law incluia todas las compañías comerciales de Francia en el exterior. En 1720 esta compañía se unió con el Banque Royale, a todos los efectos, el banco central de Francia. La nueva compañía llegó a multiplicar su valor de mercado en 20 veces. Law era un proponente de tasas de interés bajas y abundante cantidad de dinero. El esquema duró 4 años ya que la burbuja explotó –las acciones cayeron 90%!- y la moneda francesa colapsó. Law tuvo que exiliarse. Cantillon, que comprendía perfectamente la fragilidad del esquema, se benefició enormemente de comprar bajo y vender alto. Hizo enemigos en el proceso, fue juzgado, acosado y perseguido políticamente. Murió en circunstancias misteriosas en un incendio en su vivienda –posiblemente asesinado
Men multiply like Mice in a barn if they have unlimited Means of Subsistence; and the English in the Colonies will become more numerous in proportion in three generations than they would be in thirty in England, because in the Colonies they find for cultivation new tracts of lan from which teyr drive the [inhabitants] [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 83]
It is also a question outside of my subject whether it is better to have a great multitude of Inhabitants, poor and badly provided, than a smaller number, much more at their ease [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 83]
The Land is the Source or Matter from whence all Wealth is produced. The Labour of man is the Form which produces it: and Wealth in itself is nothing but the Maintenance, Conveniences, and Superfluities of Life [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 3]
the Price or intrinsic value of a thing [in general] is the measure of the quantity of Land and Labour entering into its production [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 29]
The circulation and exchange of goods and merchandise as well as their production are carried on in Europe by Undertakers and at risk” [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 29]
Several maitres d’hotels [at Paris] have been told to buy green Peas when they first come in. One Master has ordered the purchase of 10 quarts for 60 livres, another 10 quarts for 50 livres, a third 10 for 40 livres and a fourth 10 for 30 livres. If these orders are to be carried out there must be 40 quarts of gren Peas in the Market. Suppose there are only 20. The Vendors, seeing many Buyers, will keep up their Prices, and the Buyers will come up to the Prices prescribed to them: so that those who offer 60 livres for 10 quarts will be the first served. The Sellers, seeing later that no one will go above 50, will let the other 10 quarts go at that price. Those who had orders not to exceed 40 and 30 livres will go away empty [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 119-120]
If instead of 40 quarts there were 400, not only would the maitres d’hotels get the new Peas much below the sums laid down for them, but the Sellers in order to be preferred one to the other by the few Buyers will lower their new Peas almost to their intrinsec value, and in that case many maitres d’hotels who had no orders will buy some [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 120-121]
It is the general opinion in Englad that a Farmer must make three Rents. (1) The principal and true Rent which he pays to the propietor, supposed equal in value to the produce of one third of his Farm, a second Rent for his maintenance and that of the Men and Horses he employs to cultivate the Farm, and a third which ought to remain with him to make his undertaking profitable [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 121]
M. Locke lays it down as a fundamental maxim that the quantity of produce and merchandise in proportion to the quantity of money serves as the regulator of Market price. I have tried to elucidate his idea in the preceeding Chapters: he has clearly seen that the abundance of money makes everything dear, but he has not considered how it does so. The great difficulty of this question consists in knowing in what way and in what proportion the increase of money raises prices [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 161]
From all this I conclude that by doubling the quantity of money in a State the prices of products and merchandise are not always doubled. A River wich runs and winds about in its bed will not flow with double the speed when the amount of its water is doubled [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 177]
It is then undoubted that a Bank with the complicity of a Minister is able to raise and support the price of public stock and to lower the rate of interest in the State at the pleasure of this Minister when the steps are taken discreetly, and thus pay off the State debt. But these refinements which open the door to making large fortunes are rarely carried out for the sole advantage of the State, and those who take part in them are generally corrupted. The excess banknotes, made and issued on these occasions, do not upset the circulation, because being used for the buying and selling of stock they do not serve for household expenses and are not changed into silver. But if some panic or unforeseen crisis drove the holders to demand silver from the Bank, the bomb would burst and it would be seen that these are dangerous operations [Cantillon, Richard Essay on the Nature of Commerce (1755), pp. 323]
Gentlemen, we have lost our master, the veritable benefactor of humanity belongs to this earth only by the moemory of his good deeds and the imperishable record of his achievements. Socrates has been said to have brought down morality from the skies. Our master has made it germinate upon earth. Celestial morality was a guide only for a few chosen souls. The doctrine of the net product procures subsistence for the children of men, secures them in its enjoyment from violence and fraud, lays down the principles of its distribution and assures its reproduction. O bust! O venerable bust that represents to us the features of our common master. It is before you, it is to the vow of universal fraternity which our conscience, enlightened by the teaching of the excellent man whom you portrayed for us bids us observe. O Master, look down from your heavenly heights. Smile still on our words and works and our tears, while my trembling hand offers on your tomb laurels which will never perish [Marquis Mirabeau, Eulogy on the Funeral of Francois Quesnay (1774)]
El Tableau Economique. Terratenientes gastaban 1000 en la clase productiva y 1000 en la clase estéril; la clase estéril gastaba 500 en los productos de la clase productiva y 500 en los productos de la clase estéril. Y así sucesivamente. Este es un esquema estático en el sentido que se realiza cada año con la idea de mantener -periodo tras periodo- el flujo anual del produit net. Con este diagrama, los fisiócratas podían inferir si las sociedades estaban avanzando o declinando. Y de este diagrama dedujeron que todos los impuestos deberían recaer en el produit net –debían eliminarse todos los impuestos intermedios.
¿Cuál es el status del Tableau Economique en la HPE? Adam Smith pensaba que estaba basado en una falacia –la división “factica” de clases no solamente verbal. ¿Es un precedente de Walras y su sistema de equilibrio general? No, al menos en las características esenciales del sistema walrasiano. El sistema fisiocrático no era un sistema estable –no había ni mecanismo ni fuerzas que garantizaran equilibrio. No hay relación entre precios relativos y producción/distribución de recursos. Tampoco guarda relación con el sistema keynesiano –hay un precedente de flujo circular gasto-ingreso pero no multiplicador. Tampoco relación con dinámica post-keynesiana –no es un sistema dinámico genuino más bien la dinámica se introduce a partir de estática comparativa entre períodos
There is another way of being wealthy without working and without possessing land of which I have not yet spoken. It is necessary to explain its origin and its relation with the rest of the system of the distribution of wealth in society, of which I have just sketched the outlines…Each commodity can serve as a scale or common measure with which to compare the value of all others [Turgot Reflections on the Formation and the Distribution of Wealth (1770), pp. 134-135]